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Oxford Dictionary of Chemistry Sixth Edition
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- 1. www.AzShimi.ir www.AzShimi.com
- 2. 3 A Dictionary of Chemistry SIXTH EDITION Edited by JOHN DAINTITH www.AzShimi.ir www.AzShimi.com
- 3. www.AzShimi.ir www.AzShimi.com
- 4. 1Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP Great Clarendon Street, Oxford ox2 6dp Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the Universitys objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York Market House Books Ltd. 1985, 1990, 1996, 2000, 2004, 2008 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published 1985 as A Concise Dictionary of Chemistry Second edition 1990 Third edition 1996 Fourth edition 2000 Fifth edition 2004 Sixth edition 2008 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Data available Typeset by Market House Books Ltd. Printed in Great Britain by Clays Ltd, St Ives plc ISBN 9780199204632 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 www.AzShimi.ir www.AzShimi.com
- 5. Preface vii Credits viii Dictionary 1 Atomic Theory Chronology 49 Biochemistry Chronology 70 Crystal Defects (Feature) 152 Explosives Chronology 217 Plastics Chronology 422 Polymers (Feature) 430 Appendices The Greek alphabet 569 Fundamental constants 569 SI units 570 The electromagnetic spectrum 572 The periodic table 573 The chemical elements 574 Nobel prizes in chemistry 576 Useful websites 583 Contents www.AzShimi.ir www.AzShimi.com
- 6. Preface This dictionary was originally derived from the Concise Science Dictionary, first published by Oxford University Press in 1984 (fifth edition, retitled Dictionary of Science, 2005). It consisted of all the entries relating to chemistry in this dictionary, including physical chemistry, as well as many of the terms used in biochemistry. Subsequent editions included special feature articles on important topics as well as several chronologies tracing the history of some topics and short biographical entries on the chemists and other scientists who have been responsible for the development of the subject. For this sixth edition the text has been fully revised and some entries have been substantially expanded. In addition over 350 new entries have been added covering all branches of the subject. The coverage of certain fields, in particular biochemistry, forensic chemistry, and chemoinformatics, has been expanded. A further improvement has been the inclusion of about 90 additional chemical structures. An asterisk placed before a word used in an entry indicates that this word can be looked up in the dictionary and will provide further explanation or clarification. However, not every word that appears in the dictionary has an asterisk placed before it. Some entries simply refer the reader to another entry, indicating either that they are synonyms or abbreviations or that they are most conveniently explained in one of the dictionarys longer articles or features. Synonyms and abbreviations are usually placed within brackets immediately after the headword. Terms that are explained within an entry are highlighted by being printed in boldface type. The more physical aspects of physical chemistry and the physics itself will be found in A Dictionary of Physics, which is a companion volume to this dictionary. A Dictionary of Biology contains a more thorough coverage of the biophysical and biochemical entries from the Dictionary of Science together with the entries relating to biology. SI units are used throughout this book and its companion volumes. J.D. 2007 www.AzShimi.ir www.AzShimi.com
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- 8. A AAR See amino acid racemization. AAS See atomic absorption spec- troscopy. abherent See release agent. ab-initio calculation A method of calculating atomic and molecular structure directly from the rst prin- ciples of quantum mechanics, with- out using quantities derived from experiment (such as ionization ener- gies found by spectroscopy) as para- meters. Ab-initio calculations require a large amount of numerical compu- tation; the amount of computing time required increases rapidly as the size of the atom or molecule in- creases. The development of comput- ing power has enabled the properties of both small and large molecules to be calculated accurately, so that this form of calculation can now replace *semi-empirical calculations. Ab- initio calculations can, for example, be used to determine the bond lengths and bond angles of molecules by calculating the total energy of the molecule for a variety of molecular geometries and nding which confor- mation has the lowest energy. absolute 1. Not dependent on or relative to anything else, e.g. *ab- solute zero. 2. Denoting a tempera- ture measured on an absolute scale, a scale of temperature based on ab- solute zero. The usual absolute scale now is that of thermodynamic *tem- perature; its unit, the kelvin, was for- merly called the degree absolute (A) and is the same size as the degree Celsius. In British engineering prac- tice an absolute scale with Fahren- heit-size degrees has been used: this is the Rankine scale. absolute alcohol See ethanol. absolute conguration A way of denoting the absolute structure of an optical isomer (see optical activity). Two conventions are in use: The dl convention relates the structure of the molecule to some reference mol- ecule. In the case of sugars and simi- lar compounds, the dextrorotatory form of glyceraldehyde (HOCH2CH(OH)CHO), 2,3-dihydroxy- propanal) was used. The rule is as follows. Write the structure of this molecule down with the asymmetric carbon in the centre, the CHO group at the top, the OH on the right, the CH2OH at the bottom, and the H on the left. Now imagine that the central carbon atom is at the cen- tre of a tetrahedron with the four groups at the corners and that the H and OH come out of the paper and the CHO and CH2OH groups go into the paper. The resulting three- dimensional structure was taken to be that of d-glyceraldehyde and called d-glyceraldehyde. Any com- pound that contains an asymmetric carbon atom having this congura- tion belongs to the d-series. One hav- ing the opposite conguration belongs to the l-series. It is important to note that the prexes d- and l- do not stand for dextrorotatory and laevorotatory (i.e. they are not the same as d- and l-). In fact the arbitrary conguration assigned to d-glycer- aldehyde is now known to be the cor- rect one for the dextrorotatory form, although this was not known at the www.AzShimi.ir www.AzShimi.com
- 9. time. However, all d-compounds are not dextrorotatory. For instance, the acid obtained by oxidizing the CHO group of glyceraldehyde is glyceric acid (1,2-dihydroxypropanoic acid). By convention, this belongs to the d- series, but it is in fact laevorotatory; i.e. its name can be written as d- glyceric acid or l-glyceric acid. To avoid confusion it is better to use + (for dextrorotatory) and (for laevo- rotatory), as in d-(+)-glyceraldehyde and d-()-glyceric acid. The dl convention can also be used with alpha amino acids (com- pounds with the NH2 group on the same carbon as the COOH group). In this case the molecule is imagined as being viewed along the HC bond be- tween the hydrogen and the asym- metric carbon atom. If the clockwise order of the other three groups is COOH, R, NH2, the amino acid be- longs to the d-series; otherwise it be- longs to the l-series. This is known as the CORN rule. The rs convention is a convention based on priority of groups attached to the chiral carbon atom. The order of priority is I, Br, Cl, SO3H, OCOCH3, OCH3, OH, NO2, NH2, COOCH3
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